Urban Chiropractic

Carbohydrate Content of Fruits and Vegetables

Along with vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, fruits and vegetables contain carbohydrates, biomolecules that consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. It is recommended that 55-60% of one’s daily caloric intake consist of carbohydrates. [1] Understanding the carbohydrate content of different fruits and vegetables is crucial for managing health, as they are main energy source in the human diet but can lead to complications if consumed in excess.

Carbohydrates exist in two primary categories: simple and complex. Simple carbohydratesare composed of one or two sugar molecules. The most common simple sugar is glucose; fruits contain simple sugars such as fructose, while milk and dairy products contain lactose. These sugars are digested and absorbed quickly, leading to rapid spikes in blood sugar levels. High consumption of simple carbohydrates can lead to alteration of the gut [2] – which in turn may cause inflammation – as well as an increased risk for diabetes, heart disease, and high cholesterol.

Complex carbohydrates consist of long chains of sugar molecules. Starches, found in foods like grains and legumes, are complex carbohydrates. They take longer to break down and therefore have a more gradual impact on blood sugar. Fibers are complex carbohydrates the body cannot digest, and they help stabilize blood sugar levels and contribute to a feeling of fullness, potentially making calorie intake easier to control. [3]

Fruits contain varying amounts of carbohydrates, primarily in the form of simple sugars. A medium-sized apple, for example, contains around 25 grams of carbohydrates, while an average banana has about 27 grams of carbohydrates. [4] Berries like strawberries, blueberries, and raspberries are relatively low in carbohydrates: a cup of strawberries, for example, contains roughly 11 grams of carbohydrates.4 While there is no inherent difference between natural and added sugars, such as those found in a candy bar, it’s worth emphasizing that fruits provide antioxidants, fiber, and other nutrients, while foods rich in added sugars often contain little nutritional value.

Vegetables tend to be lower in carbohydrate content compared to fruits, making them a preferred choice for those aiming to manage their carb intake. One cup of cooked broccoli, for example, contains about six grams of carbohydrates, while a cup of raw spinach has only about one gram of carbohydrates.4 Interestingly, steaming and boiling certain root vegetables can increase their dietary fiber content, as shown in a recent study. [5]

Another important concept to consider when evaluating the carbohydrate content of fruits and vegetables and their impact on blood sugar levels is the glycemic index (GI) and glycemic load (GL). GI measures how quickly a food can raise blood sugar levels. Foods with a high GI (70 or more) are rapidly absorbed and can cause spikes in blood sugar, while low-GI foods (55 or less) are absorbed more slowly. GL is a newer metric that considers GI along with the amount of carbohydrates per serving and provides a more accurate picture of how a food impacts blood sugar. [6] Watermelon, for example, has a high GI because it contains natural sugars, but its GL is relatively low because it’s mostly water. This means that while it can raise blood sugar, the effect is less significant compared to some other high-GI foods.

References

1. Krauss, R. M. et al. Dietary Guidelines for Healthy American Adults. Circulation 94, 1795–1800 (1996), DOI: 10.1161/01.cir.94.7.1795

2. Clemente-Suárez, V. J. et al. The Burden of Carbohydrates in Health and Disease. Nutrients 14, 3809 (2022), DOI: 10.3390/nu14183809

3. National Research Council (US) Subcommittee on the Tenth Edition of the Recommended Dietary Allowances in Recommended Dietary Allowances: 10th Edition (National Academies Press (US), 1989), DOI: 10.17226/1349

4. United States Department of Agriculture, FoodData Central. https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/171688/nutrients.

5. Andersson, J. et al. Comparison of steaming and boiling of root vegetables for enhancing carbohydrate content and sensory profile. J. Food Eng. 312, 110754 (2022), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2021.110754

6. Glycemic index and glycemic load: measurement issues and their effect on diet–disease relationships | European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. https://www.nature.com/articles/1602942, https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602942

Aflotoxins Harmful Effects and What Foods They are Found In

Aflatoxins, produced primarily by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus molds, are highly toxic compounds that pose severe health risks to humans and animals, leading to diseases such as liver cancer. These toxins are secondary metabolites of certain fungi, with several types including Aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2, M1, and M2, among which Aflatoxin B1 is the most prevalent and toxic. They are chemically stable and can survive processing treatments.

Aflatoxins frequently contaminate crops like maize, peanuts, cottonseed, and tree nuts, especially under warm and humid conditions. They are also found in milk and dairy products when animals consume contaminated feed. As potent carcinogens, aflatoxins are linked to liver cancer in humans. Chronic exposure can lead to aflatoxicosis, causing liver damage, jaundice, and potentially liver failure. In children, it can stunt growth and delay development, while acute high-dose exposure can be immediately lethal.

The presence of aflatoxins in animal feed, when consumed by livestock, can lead to liver damage and reduced productivity in these animals. This also results in aflatoxins being present in animal products like milk, eggs, and meat, which is a significant health risk to humans. Economically, the presence of aflatoxins in crops can cause substantial financial losses in agriculture-dependent economies and create trade barriers due to stringent regulations on aflatoxin levels in imported foods.

To protect consumers, many countries enforce maximum levels for aflatoxins in food and feed, with international standards set by the Codex Alimentarius Commission. Regular monitoring for aflatoxin contamination is vital, employing methods such as chromatography and immunoassays, with technological advancements making detection more rapid and sensitive.

Prevention of aflatoxin contamination involves controlling mold growth through agricultural practices like crop rotation, proper irrigation, and pest control, as well as post-harvest measures like adequate drying and storage. Research is ongoing in understanding the biology of aflatoxin-producing molds and developing resistant crop varieties. Biotechnological approaches, such as genetic modification and biocontrol agents, are emerging as promising solutions.

Public health initiatives focus on educating the public about aflatoxin risks and promoting safe food handling and storage practices, particularly in developing countries, which is crucial for minimizing exposure to these toxins. In summary, aflatoxins represent a major threat to public health and the economy, necessitating comprehensive efforts in monitoring, regulation, research, education, and public health initiatives to mitigate their effects and ensure food safety.

Medical Gaslighting

Medical gaslighting is a concerning phenomenon in the healthcare sector where patients’ symptoms and concerns are dismissed or trivialized by healthcare professionals. This often leads to misdiagnosis, delayed treatment, or even no treatment, impacting patient health and trust in the medical system significantly.

At its core, medical gaslighting involves healthcare providers, whether consciously or unconsciously, invalidating or downplaying patients’ symptoms. This could be as overt as suggesting that symptoms are imagined or as subtle as attributing them to psychological factors without thorough investigation. The impact on patients is profound, potentially leading to the worsening of untreated conditions, mental health issues due to persistent invalidation, and a general mistrust of the medical system. In extreme cases, it can result in severe health consequences or death due to undiagnosed conditions.

Certain groups are more susceptible to medical gaslighting. Women, particularly those suffering from chronic pain conditions, often report not being taken seriously. Similarly, minorities, people from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, and members of the LGBTQ+ community face biases that can lead to their health concerns being overlooked or wrongly attributed to stereotypes.

The issue is highlighted through numerous case studies. Patients with conditions like fibromyalgia or endometriosis often recount years of pain being dismissed before receiving a correct diagnosis. Stories from racial minorities and LGBTQ+ individuals reveal a pattern of their health concerns being ignored or misattributed.

The root causes of medical gaslighting are complex, including systemic issues such as time constraints in consultations, lack of training in rare diseases, and unconscious biases in healthcare professionals. The culture within the medical profession, which sometimes values empirical data over patient testimony, also contributes to this problem.

Healthcare providers play a crucial role in addressing medical gaslighting. This involves acknowledging its existence, engaging in active listening, showing empathy, and undergoing continuous education on rare diseases, mental health, and diversity. Empowering patients is also key, which involves educating them about their rights, encouraging them to speak up, and advising them to seek second opinions if they feel dismissed. Patient advocacy groups are instrumental in this effort.

Medical gaslighting raises ethical and legal concerns. Ethically, it violates the principles of beneficence and non-maleficence in medicine. Legally, it can lead to malpractice lawsuits if the dismissal of symptoms results in harm to the patient. Beyond individual patients, it undermines public trust in the healthcare system and can lead to increased healthcare costs due to delayed diagnoses and treatments.

Addressing medical gaslighting requires systemic changes in healthcare, including better patient-provider communication, more inclusive medical training, and a shift in medical culture to value patient experiences. Research into patient experiences and outcomes can provide insights into the prevalence and impact of medical gaslighting, guiding future improvements in healthcare practices.

Chiropractic Neural Mobilization for Diabetic Neuropathy

Chiropractic Neural Mobilization (CNM) is an emerging approach in the management of diabetic neuropathy, a common complication of diabetes characterized by nerve damage, particularly in the extremities. This condition can lead to symptoms such as numbness, pain, and weakness in the feet and hands. Traditional treatments for diabetic neuropathy have focused on controlling blood sugar levels and medication for pain relief. However, CNM offers a complementary and alternative approach that focuses on the mechanical and functional aspects of the nervous system.

Understanding Diabetic Neuropathy

Diabetic neuropathy arises primarily due to prolonged exposure to high blood sugar levels, which damages nerves and impairs blood flow, essential for nerve health. The most common form is peripheral neuropathy, affecting the extremities. Symptoms can range from mild to severe and can significantly impact the quality of life.

Chiropractic Neural Mobilization: An Overview

CNM is a therapeutic approach that combines the principles of chiropractic care with specific techniques aimed at mobilizing the nervous system. This approach is grounded in the understanding that the nervous system is not just a static network of nerves but a dynamic system that requires movement and flexibility for optimal function. CNM techniques include gentle manipulations and stretches designed to relieve nerve entrapments and improve nerve gliding, which can be impaired in diabetic neuropathy.

Mechanism of Action

The underlying theory of CNM is that by improving nerve mobility and reducing nerve entrapment, it can alleviate the symptoms associated with diabetic neuropathy. Nerve mobilization techniques aim to restore the natural movement of nerves within their surrounding tissues, thus reducing tension and improving blood flow. This can lead to a reduction in pain and improvement in nerve function.

Clinical Application of CNM for Diabetic Neuropathy

In clinical settings, CNM is tailored to the individual needs of patients with diabetic neuropathy. The chiropractor assesses the patient’s condition, focusing on areas where nerve entrapment or reduced mobility is suspected. Treatment involves gentle manipulative techniques and stretches, targeting the affected nerves. This approach is often integrated with other therapeutic strategies, such as lifestyle modifications and exercises, to enhance overall effectiveness.

Research and Evidence

Research into CNM as a treatment for diabetic neuropathy is still in its early stages. However, preliminary studies and anecdotal evidence suggest that patients may experience improvements in symptoms like pain, numbness, and overall nerve function. Ongoing research is needed to establish the efficacy and safety of CNM in this context and to understand the mechanisms behind its potential benefits.

Advantages and Considerations

One of the primary advantages of CNM is its non-invasive nature, making it a safe option for many patients who may not tolerate certain medications or invasive treatments. It also addresses the mechanical aspects of neuropathy, which are often overlooked in standard diabetic care. However, patients considering CNM should consult with their healthcare provider, as it should complement rather than replace conventional diabetes management strategies.

Conclusion

Chiropractic Neural Mobilization represents a novel approach in the management of diabetic neuropathy, focusing on the mechanical and functional rehabilitation of the nervous system. While promising, it is important for patients and practitioners to approach this treatment as part of a comprehensive care plan for diabetes and its complications. As research in this area evolves, CNM may become a more integral part of neuropathy management, offering a new avenue of relief for those suffering from this challenging condition.

The Integrated Neuromuscular Inhibition Technique (INIT)

The Integrated Neuromuscular Inhibition Technique (INIT) is a therapeutic approach used in chiropractic care, particularly effective for managing chronic neck pain. It is often integrated with therapeutic exercises (TE) to enhance pain relief and improve functional outcomes in patients. The effectiveness of INIT in treating chronic neck pain has been confirmed through various studies, showing its benefits in both pain reduction and functional improvement.

One study specifically investigated the addition of INIT to a TE program for individuals with chronic mechanical neck pain (CMNP). The study included participants with active or latent myofascial trigger points in their neck muscles, who were divided into two groups. The intervention group followed a program combining TE with INIT, while the control group pursued the same TE program without INIT. The results of this study indicated significant improvements in both groups after the intervention. However, the group that received INIT in addition to TE demonstrated greater improvements in various measures, including the visual analog scale for pain, neck disability index score, neck muscles pressure pain threshold, range of motion, and the 36-Item Short Form Health Survey score. These improvements were observed as early as the second week and were maintained for six months following the intervention. This suggests that INIT, when added to a TE program, has a positive effect on pain, functionality, and the quality of life in individuals with CMNP.

Another study compared the efficacy of two different manual techniques, spinal manipulation (SM) and INIT, when combined with the same TE program in managing chronic neck pain (CNP). This study involved eighty women with CNP who were allocated into four groups. Each group followed a different combination of techniques: one group with only TE, the second group with TE and INIT, the third with TE and SM, and the fourth served as the control group. The study assessed various parameters, including the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) for pain, Neck Disability Index (NDI), Pressure Pain Threshold (PPT) of the neck muscles, neck active Range of Motion (ROM), Maximum Isometric Strength (MIS) of the neck muscles, craniocervical flexion test (CCFT), and SF-36 questionnaire scores. The results indicated that there were significant differences between the intervention groups and the control group, with positive effects being maintained until the six-month follow-up. However, improvements occurred earlier in the “TE + INIT” and “TE + SM” groups than in the TE-only group. Between the “TE + INIT” and the “TE + SM” groups, differences were mainly noticed in the neck muscles PPT values, where the “TE + INIT” group showed greater improvement. Additionally, some non-statistically significant indications for further improvement of “TE + SM” were noted in the left lateral flexion ROM. This study concluded that the addition of INIT, as well as SM, to the same TE program could further increase the beneficial effect of exercise in women with CNP.

INIT typically involves identifying and applying pressure to tender or trigger points. For instance, in a study focusing on piriformis syndrome, the INIT group received a protocol where the therapist palpated the tender point in the piriformis muscle, applying intermittent or sustained pressure for 20-60 seconds. This was followed by Ruddy’s reciprocal antagonist facilitation (RRAF), a method involving the patient performing tiny contractions against the therapist’s resistance. The treatment sessions typically included repetitions of this protocol, complemented with stretching exercises. The efficacy of this approach was assessed through measures like pain, functional mobility, quality of life, and hip abduction and internal rotation, demonstrating significant improvements post-treatment and at a four-month follow-up.

In conclusion, INIT, especially when combined with therapeutic exercises, has proven to be an effective technique in the management of chronic neck pain and other related musculoskeletal conditions. It incorporates specific techniques focusing on trigger points and muscle tenderness, contributing to significant pain reduction and improved functionality.

The Positive Effects of Mindfulness

Mindfulness, rooted in ancient Buddhist meditation, has gained recognition in modern psychology and wellness for its extensive positive effects on both mental and physical health. This practice, centered around being fully present and engaged in the moment while being aware of one’s thoughts and feelings without judgment, offers a plethora of benefits.

In terms of mental health, mindfulness significantly reduces stress and anxiety, helping to manage conditions like generalized anxiety disorder and panic attacks. It improves emotional regulation, leading to better control over reactions and feelings. Mindfulness also decreases symptoms of depression, particularly in individuals with recurrent episodes, and builds resilience, equipping individuals to handle life’s challenges more effectively.

Physically, mindfulness has been linked to lower blood pressure, beneficial for heart health, and improved sleep quality, aiding in combating insomnia. It plays a crucial role in pain management, especially for those suffering from chronic conditions, and enhances the body’s immune response.

Cognitively, mindfulness training enhances focus and concentration, leading to better attention spans. It increases neuroplasticity, resulting in improved mental faculties, and boosts memory retention and recall abilities. Additionally, it fosters creative thinking by encouraging a state of open, non-judgmental awareness.

Interpersonally, mindfulness improves communication skills, leading to better relationships. It increases empathy and compassion, providing tools for effective conflict resolution and strengthening relationships.

Mindfulness can be integrated into daily life through various practices like meditation, focusing on the breath, and observing thoughts and sensations. It can also be practiced during everyday activities like eating, walking, or working, by fully engaging with the present moment.

In conclusion, the positive effects of mindfulness are profound, improving one’s quality of life across various domains. Whether it’s through enhancing mental and physical health, sharpening cognitive abilities, or enriching relationships, mindfulness is a valuable tool for personal growth and wellbeing. As research continues to reveal its benefits, mindfulness is increasingly recognized as an essential component of a balanced, healthy lifestyle.

Supplements

Supplements play a significant role in weight training, offering various benefits while also presenting certain risks. Protein supplements like whey, casein, soy, and pea protein are fundamental in aiding muscle repair and growth, with whey known for its fast absorption post-workout and casein beneficial before bedtime. However, overconsumption of these can lead to digestive issues and potentially strain the kidneys in some individuals.

Creatine is another popular choice, recognized for its ability to increase muscle mass, strength, and enhance exercise performance. It can, however, cause water retention and, if used long-term, may impact kidney health, though the risks are minimal with proper dosage. Branched-Chain Amino Acids (BCAAs), comprising leucine, isoleucine, and valine, reduce muscle soreness and fatigue while enhancing protein synthesis. Overuse, though, can lead to amino acid imbalance and gastrointestinal distress.

Pre-workout supplements, typically containing caffeine, beta-alanine, and nitric oxide precursors, boost energy, focus, and endurance but can cause jitters, insomnia, and an increased heart rate due to high caffeine content. Beta-Alanine, specifically, enhances performance in high-intensity workouts and reduces muscle fatigue, though it may cause a harmless tingling sensation on the skin and, if overused, neurological issues.

Omega-3 Fatty Acids, often sourced from fish oil supplements, support muscle recovery, reduce inflammation, and improve heart health. However, high doses can thin the blood, posing risks for those on blood-thinning medications. Glutamine, beneficial for the immune system and muscle recovery, can disrupt the amino acid balance when overused.

Testosterone boosters, which may contain ingredients like D-aspartic acid and herbal extracts, are claimed to increase muscle mass by boosting testosterone levels, but their effectiveness is not strongly supported by scientific evidence and they can lead to hormonal imbalances. Weight gainers, high in calories and comprising carbs, proteins, and fats, are useful for those struggling to gain weight but can result in unhealthy weight gain if misused.

Finally, vitamin and mineral supplements, including Vitamin D, B vitamins, calcium, and iron, support overall health and muscle function. However, their overconsumption can lead to adverse health effects due to toxicity.

In conclusion, while supplements can significantly aid weight training efforts, it’s essential to use them responsibly, considering their quality, purity, and dosage. They should supplement, not replace, a balanced diet and a healthy lifestyle, and their use should be tailored to individual health needs and fitness goals. Consulting with healthcare professionals before starting any supplement regimen is always advisable to ensure safe and effective use.

Cluster Headaches

Cluster headaches are a type of headache that is marked by severe, recurring pain on one side of the head, typically around the eye. They are called “cluster headaches” because they tend to occur in groups or clusters, with active periods interrupted by remission periods when the headaches stop. During an active period, a person may experience frequent attacks, with each attack lasting from 15 minutes to three hours. These headaches are often accompanied by other symptoms, such as red or teary eyes, nasal congestion, or a runny nose on the side of the head that is affected.

The exact cause of cluster headaches is unknown, but they are believed to involve the hypothalamus, a part of the brain that regulates biological rhythms including sleep and wake cycles. Factors like alcohol consumption, smoking, bright light, and heat may trigger or worsen these headaches in some people.

Treatment for cluster headaches often involves medications to reduce the severity of attacks or to prevent them. These may include triptans, oxygen therapy, and corticosteroids. However, some people seek alternative treatments, such as chiropractic care, particularly when conventional treatments are ineffective or cause unwanted side effects.

Chiropractic treatment for cluster headaches primarily focuses on relieving tension and improving function in the neck and spine. The theory is that spinal misalignments, particularly in the cervical (neck) region, can affect the nervous system and potentially contribute to headache patterns. Chiropractors use various techniques to adjust and manipulate the spine, aiming to improve spinal alignment and reduce nerve irritation.

Although there is limited scientific research specifically on the effectiveness of chiropractic care for cluster headaches, some people report relief from their symptoms following chiropractic treatment. This relief may be due to the reduction of muscular tension and the improvement of nerve function resulting from spinal adjustments. Chiropractic care can also include advice on posture, ergonomics, and exercises, which may help in managing the symptoms.

It’s important to note that chiropractic care is not a cure for cluster headaches and may not be effective for everyone. Individuals considering chiropractic treatment for cluster headaches should consult with their healthcare provider to ensure it’s a suitable option for them, especially since these headaches can be a symptom of other underlying health issues. Additionally, a chiropractor experienced in treating headache disorders can provide a more tailored approach to care.

In summary, cluster headaches are a painful and challenging condition to manage. While conventional treatments are often the first line of defense, chiropractic care may offer additional relief for some individuals. This alternative approach focuses on spinal health and nerve function and may help in reducing the frequency or severity of headache attacks for those with cluster headaches. However, it’s essential to approach this treatment option with caution and in consultation with a healthcare provider.

The Pros and Cons of Energy Drinks

Pros of Energy Drinks

Firstly, energy drinks are known for their ability to increase alertness and concentration. The caffeine content stimulates the central nervous system, helping to combat fatigue and enhance focus. This can be particularly beneficial for individuals in demanding jobs or students during exams. Secondly, they provide a convenient source of energy, especially useful for those with busy lifestyles or in need of a quick energy boost before physical activities. Additionally, some studies suggest that energy drinks can improve physical performance by increasing endurance and reducing the perception of effort during exercise. The market also offers a wide variety of choices in flavors and compositions, including sugar-free and low-calorie options, catering to diverse tastes and dietary preferences. Lastly, the temporary boost in mood and energy levels can help with certain mental health issues, although this is not a substitute for professional treatment.

Cons of Energy Drinks

On the downside, excessive consumption of energy drinks can lead to serious health issues such as heart palpitations, high blood pressure, and in extreme cases, cardiac arrest. They can also cause insomnia, anxiety, and digestive problems. Regular intake can lead to caffeine addiction and dependence, with withdrawal symptoms like headaches and irritability upon reduced consumption. Furthermore, they can negatively impact mental health by increasing anxiety and stress levels, particularly in individuals sensitive to caffeine. The high sugar content can contribute to dental issues like cavities and tooth decay. There’s also the risk of overconsumption, exacerbated by appealing taste and aggressive marketing, especially to younger audiences. This overconsumption can lead to nutritional displacement, as these drinks are not a substitute for a balanced diet and may lead people to make poorer nutritional choices. Lastly, consuming energy drinks can interfere with sleep patterns, leading to reduced sleep quality and duration, which can have a cascading effect on overall health.

In conclusion, while energy drinks can offer immediate benefits like increased energy and improved concentration, their long-term effects, especially when consumed in excess, can pose significant health risks. It’s crucial for consumers to be aware of these risks and to consume these drinks in moderation. Healthier alternatives such as natural fruit juices, regular exercise, and adequate sleep should be considered for a more sustainable energy boost. As with any dietary choice, informed decisions and attentiveness to one’s body are key to avoiding negative health outcomes.

What Causes Changes in Appetite and Cravings?

Many people experience changes in their appetite and cravings over time, and it isn’t always easy to pinpoint what is causing these changes. Complex pathways modulate energy balance and appetite. These involve appetite centers in the hypothalamus and brain stem, in addition to hormonal signals of energy status from the gut and periphery 1. The regulation of energy balance and appetite is thus orchestrated by an interaction of hormones, nutrients, neuronal signals with the central nervous system, notably the hypothalamus 2. Individuals experience changes in appetite and cravings as a result of these complex interactions.

While increased appetite is often not a cause for concern, this can also signal an underlying condition. Most commonly, this is diabetes, but it may also be other hormone conditions, thyroid conditions like hyperthyroidism, genetic conditions, or even growth-hormone secreting tumors 3. Alongside such conditions, certain negative behavioral situations can increase an individual’s appetite as well. These tend to include chronic stress and sleep deprivation.

Mechanistically, there is a constant, complex interplay between various factors in the regulation of appetite and cravings. These can take the form of orexigenic, or appetite-stimulating, or anorexigenic, or appetite-curbing, signals.

This includes the action of peripheral hormones from the gut, pancreas, adipose, and liver, which respond to the level of stored fat and therefore the body’s currently available reserves for fuel. Acting via leptin signaling from fat tissues for example, the vagus nerve curbs appetite.

Areas in the hypothalamus and brain stem work to integrate multiple behavioral, endocrine, and autonomic responses according to information received from the body 4. For example, neurons in the hypothalamus, via ghrelin signaling from the stomach, express pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) to curb appetite. In contrast, these neurons express neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti-related peptide (ARP) to increase appetite 5.

A number of complex factors influence food cravings specifically, as well. First, it is possible that cravings are for specific foods because the body needs particular nutrients 6. Second, an imbalance of hormones, such as leptin and serotonin, can trigger specific or generalized cravings for food. Third, in people who menstruate, hormonal fluctuations across the menstrual cycle can cause cravings. Relatedly, people can experience especially strong cravings during pregnancy due to hormonal changes. Finally, emotions can also contribute to food cravings, such as in cases of comfort eating. It is critical to understand the root causes of cravings and the patterns behind their emergence in order to best regulate these factors as they arise.

The increase in the prevalence of overweight and obesity is one of the greatest threats to the health of the American population 7. Understanding the factors underpinning body weight regulation will help to develop new strategies to combat the obesity epidemic. Correcting dysfunctional changes to appetite and cravings would help prevent metabolic disorders, while understanding normal changes would help improve perceptions and conversations around eating habits and weight. Continued research into the factors underlying changes in appetite and cravings is sure to improve health into the future.

References

1. Druce, M. & Bloom, S. R. The regulation of appetite. Arch. Dis. Child. 91, 183 (2006). doi: 10.1136/adc.2005.073759

2. Hainerová, I. A. & Lebl, J. Mechanisms of appetite regulation. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 51, (2010). DOI: 10.1097/MPG.0b013e3181f84208

3. 10 possible reasons why you’re experiencing an increased appetite – Blog | Everlywell: Home Health Testing Made Easy. Available at: https://www.everlywell.com/blog/sleep-and-stress/reasons-for-increased-appetite/. (Accessed: 16th October 2023)

4. Miller, G. D. Appetite Regulation: Hormones, Peptides, and Neurotransmitters and Their Role in Obesity. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine (2019). doi:10.1177/1559827617716376

5. Adam, C. L. & Mercer, J. G. Appetite regulation and seasonality: implications for obesity. Proc. Nutr. Soc. (2004). doi:10.1079/pns2004367

6. Food cravings: Causes and how to reduce and replace cravings. Available at: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/318441. (Accessed: 16th October 2023)

7. Perry, B. & Wang, Y. Appetite regulation and weight control: The role of gut hormones. Nutrition and Diabetes (2012). doi:10.1038/nutd.2011.21